Iraq

Background

Iraq disappeared from the US’s foreign affairs agenda largely due to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, but in 2002 Washington raised concerns that Iraq was still developing weapons of mass destruction (WMD), which it claimed could get in the hands of terrorists. The Bush administration additionally alleged that the country’s authoritarian leader Saddam Hussein was assisting and harbouring terrorists. The 11 September attacks had completely changed Washington's outlook on international affairs, with the introduction of the so-called "Bush doctrine" -- the use of pre-emptive military action against another state if it was perceived as a threat. Iraq was the next target in the war on terrorism.

With assistance from a number of other countries, including Australia and Poland, more than 200,000 US and British forces launched Operation Iraqi Freedom and invaded Iraq from Kuwait in March 2003. Aircraft to support the land invasion were available in Bahrain, Diego Garcia, Kuwait and Qatar, while naval forces were deployed in the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea.

Iraqi Freedom began on the night of 19 March as US and UK naval forces in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf launched Tomahawk cruise missiles at various targets. However, American and British aircraft operating in two no-fly zones covering northern and southern Iraq that had been established after the first Gulf War in 1991 had actually been secretly undertaking limited targetting of Baghdad’s military infrastructure and communications facilities in the months leading up to the invasion.

The blitzkrieg nature of the Iraqi Freedom meant that the land force moved quickly through the desert, keeping clear of major populated cities and towns. Any attempts by the Iraqi Army to engage the invasion force was quickly quashed by coalition armour and aircraft, which were faced with no opposition from their enemy's air force. The only significant problem in the invasion was when the Anglo-American advance towards the southern city of Basra was temporarily halted due to resistance from Iraqi forces holed up in the city. A hoped uprising from Basra's Shia population, which the coalition planned to support, never materialised. The coalition captured Baghdad on 9 April 2003 and on 1 May, George W Bush announced an end to major combat operations. Saddam Hussein was captured by US troops at a remote farmhouse near the town of Tikrit in northern Iraq in December 2003 -- he was eventually sentenced to death by an Iraqi court and hung in January 2007. His sons, Uday and Qusay, were killed after US troops attacked their Mosul hideout in July 2003.

US and British forces remained in Iraq after the invasion as permitted through UN Security Council (UNSC) Resolution 1483 (22 May 2003) to support a newly-formed government and these were later joined by other nations. But the situation in Iraq remains highly dangerous due to an insurgency campaign. More than 4,000 coalition troops (mostly American) have been killed since the end of the war in May 2003, while many thousands of civilians have been killed. It has been estimated that while about 80 per cent of attacks carried out by the insurgents have targeted coalition troops, 80 per cent of casualties have been Iraqi civilians.

The whole campaign and continued occupation is shrouded in controversy, and remains unpopular in some countries. No "smoking-gun" to prove that Iraq was still developing WMD was ever found after the war, while there was little evidence to suggest that the dictator had developed a strong relationship with Al-Qaeda or was somehow linked to the 11 September attacks.

Coalition forces deployments

A multinational force deployed in Iraq shortly after Saddam Hussein's regime was ousted, having been approved by UNSC Resolution 1511 on 16 October 2003.

The US has about 168,000 troops in Iraq still under the name Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). Of this number, approximately 28,500 extra troops were deployed in the Baghdad area and central Iraq in mid-2007 as part of Washington’s strategy review, dubbed New Way Forward, aimed at increasing stability in the capital. Iraqi Freedom is being supported by a further 30,000 US forces based in the Arabia Sea, Persian Gulf, South-East Asia, Europe and in Africa. Many of these forces are also supporting Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and are under the overall command of US Central Command (US CENTCOM).

In September 2007, the Commander of Multinational Force Iraq (MNF-I), General David Petraeus, provided US Congress with an assessment of the security situation in Iraq stating that conditions had improved since the launch of the strategy review. As a result, President George W Bush announced that US troops numbers will be reduced by about 36,000 by July 2008, bringing levels back to those prior to the start of the troop surge in mid-2007. Concerns over the strains placed on American troops due to long and frequent tours of duty in Iraq may have also been a major factor in the decision. With the US military responsible for almost all of the troops deployed in the country, it has inevitably bore the brunt of the casualty figures among the coalition forces. As of mid-October, a total of 4,125 coalition troops had been killed since the start of Iraqi Freedom. Of this number, some 3,828 deaths were American with 3,115 killed due to hostile action.

There are now nearly 12,000 troops from 23 countries deployed in Iraq assisting US forces. A number of countries are also supporting a NATO force tasked with training the Iraqi security forces. Uncertainty over an exit strategy coupled with the insurgency campaign has resulted in some countries withdrawing their troops, including Japan, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain and Thailand. Poland previously planned to withdraw by end-2006, but extended its deployment of 900 troops by a further 12 months to train the Iraqi Army. Despite being one of the main contributors to the invasion force, the UK reduced its forces from 7,100 in mid-2007 to 5,000 in October as it handed control of the south back to the Iraqis. In October, the UK announced that that it will reduce its force levels to 4,000 personnel by end-2007 and possibly to 2,500 by spring 2008, depending on the security situation. It is slowly switching to an overwatch role where UK forces will be responsible for training the Iraqi security forces and patrolling the Iran-Iraq border, while Iraq conducts its own counter-insurgency operations. Denmark withdrew its 460-strong contingent in August, but deployed another 55 personnel to support a deployment in southern Iraq of four AS550 Fennec helicopters. Lithuania began re-deploying 40 infantry soldiers in Baghdad in mid-October 2007, having withdrawn from Iraq earlier in the year.

In addition to foreign military forces in Iraq, it is estimated that there are about 64,000 private military contractors, including 20,000 from the US. These are tasked with a wide range of roles, including protecting officials and installations. Following an incident in September 2007 involving the American private security Blackwater, which resulted in the death of 17 civilians, the US is in the process of introducing new measures aimed at improving government control of these organisations. The measures include the introduction of the same rules of engagement operated by the US military as well as better co-ordination between the security contractors and US forces.

Although Iraq's security forces are increasingly taking on more responsibility for security in the country, it is unlikely that there will be a massive withdrawal of troops in the short-term due to the ferocity of the insurgency. Nine of Iraq's 18 provinces have been fully returned to Iraqi control since July 2006 with Basra being handed over on 16 December 2007. It is planned that the Iraqi security forces will be able to conduct its own counter-insurgency operations in 15 provinces by end-2007. Coalition forces and the Iraqi government have formed the Joint Committee to Transfer Security Responsibility (JCTSR) to assess when the provinces can be returned to Iraqi control.

Estimated troop contributions

In May 2004, coalition forces established a new command structure in Iraq due to the security situation, comprising Multinational Force Iraq, Multinational Corps Iraq and Multinational Security Transition Command Iraq.

Multinational Force Iraq
Multinational Force Iraq (MNF-I) has its headquarters (MNF-I HQ) at Camp Victory, Baghdad. It is responsible for confidence-building measures and the overall command of coalition forces in Iraq, which are deployed in six areas of responsibility (AoRs). As of December 2007, MNF-I was led by the US's Army’s XVIII Airborne Corps Headquarters and commanded by the US's General David Petraeus.

MNF-I is backed by the Gulf Region Division headed by the US Army Corps of Engineers, which undertakes civil-military engineering and reconstruction and projects, and Logistical Support Area Anaconda commanded by 13th Sustainment Command (Expeditionary). MNF-I’s subordinate command is Multinational Corps Iraq (MNC-I) also at Camp Victory, which is responsible for commanding and directing forces engaged in combat operations against the insurgents. MNC-I is currently under the command of Lieutenant-General Raymond Odierno.

Coalition forces are deployed in one multinational force (west) and six multinational divisions (north, Baghdad, central, central-south, south-east). With the arrival of further US forces in the Baghdad area to undertake joint operations with the Iraqi security forces, a sixth multinational division (central) was created. Other forces assigned directly to US CENTCOM for deployment anywhere in Iraq includes troops from Azerbaijan, Estonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), Georgia and South Korea.

MNF-I personnel are additionally assigned to 25 Provincial Reconstruction Teams (PRTs) located throughout Iraq's. Each PRT is composed of about 18 coalition military and civilian personnel that are tasked with helping to build and stabilise local communities by strengthening relationships with local leaders, promoting reconciliation and encouraging regional economic development. Ten civilian PRTs are currently embedded with the US forces that deployed in Iraq in mid-2007, being based in Baghdad and the Al-Anbar province.

Disposition of forces in Iraq (US DoD 11/07)

Main US deployments (OIF-5 as of mid-2007)

• III Corps Headquarters commanding MNF-I.
• 13th Corps Support Command.
• 1st Cavalry Division headquarters.
• 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division.
• Division Headquarters, 25th Infantry Division.
• 3rd, 4th Brigade, 25th Infantry Division.
• 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division.
• 2nd, 3rd Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division.
• 2nd Brigade, 10th Mountain Division.
• 3rd Brigade, 82nd Airborne Division.
• 1st Brigade, 34th Infantry Division, Minnesota ANG.
• II Marine Expeditionary Force (II MEF).

Extra deployments for troop surge

• 2nd Brigade, 82nd Airborne Division redeployed from Kuwait to Iraq.
• 2nd, 3rd Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division (deployed in March-May 2007).
• 4th Stryker Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division (April 2007).

The next rotation of US forces (OIF-6) began in August 2007 and will continue through to the end of the year.

• XVIII Airborne Corps Headquarters commanding MNF-I.
• 1st Armored Division Headquarters (to lead MND-N).
• 4th Infantry Division Headquarters (to lead MND-B).
• 2nd Brigade, 1st Armored Division.
• 2nd, 4th Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division.
• 1st Brigade, 4th Infantry Division.
• 1st, 4th Brigade, 10th Mountain Division.
• 2nd Brigade, 25th Infantry Division.
• 1st, 2nd, 3rd Brigade, 101st Airborne Division.
• 2nd Cavalry Regiment (Stryker).
• 3rd Armored Cavalry Regiment.

Multinational Security Transition Command Iraq
The coalition completely abolished the Iraq’s security apparatus after the invasion and demobilised the 400,000-strong armed forces, opting to rebuild them from scratch. Only fresh recruits were initially recruited into the new Iraqi Armed Forces (IAF) and senior officers were barred from joining largely due to their close connections with the Ba’ath Party and role in the country’s internal security under Saddam Hussein. The first Iraqi Army brigade become operational in mid-2004, but when it became clear that training needed to be accelerated due to the insurgency, even former members of Saddam Hussein's elite Republican Guard Corps were recruited. There remain concerns over the ISF operational effectiveness and its impartiality in the insurgency. US-supplied weapons have reportedly gone missing from IAF stocks or failed to reach frontline units. There are also concerns that the police has become politicised on a local level and has been infiltrated by Shia extremists.

As of October 2007, 359,700 Iraqi Security Forces (ISF) personnel were trained and equipped, including 194,000 in the police and 165,000 in the IAF. The Iraqi Army will comprise ten divisions, 36 brigades and 112 battalions once it is fully trained by 2008. As of October 2007, 163,500 personnel were trained and equipped with 75 per cent of Iraqi Army units being capable of mounting counter-insurgency operations independently or with assistance from the coalition. Of the other IAF forces, the 900-strong Iraqi Air Force is currently equipped with 51 fixed-wing aircraft and 35 helicopters, while the 1,100-strong Iraqi Navy is equipped with 39 vessels, including five patrol boats. It includes a single marine battalion.

Multinational Security Transition Command Iraq (MNTSCI) at Phoenix Base, Baghdad is responsible for training Iraq's security forces and personnel from the defence and interior ministries through nine training and transition teams. Of this number, the Coalition Military Assistance Training Team (CMATT) is responsible for training, organising and equipping Iraq’s security forces, while the Joint Headquarters Advisory Support Team (JHQ) assists in developing Iraqi command structures to mount operations within the country. Several thousand US military advisors are currently embedded with Iraq’s security forces, which are now operating alongside the coalition in more than 80 per cent of counter-insurgency operations. MNTSCI is under the control of MNF-I and is commanded by the US Army's Lieutenant-General James Dubik.

Other forces
There is a non-combat battalion contributing to the UN Assistance Mission in Iraq (UNAMI), which comprises approximately 223 Fijian troops (as of September 2007). Australia, Canada, Denmark, New Zealand and the UK have deployed a total of seven military observers with the UN force. UNAMI is mandated to assist the Iraqi government in its development of democratic institutions as well as co-ordinating and delivery of humanitarian aid. MNF-I is tasked with the protection of UNAMI personnel and provides logistical support.

NATO has established a small presence in Iraq under the command of Lt-Gen Dubik with several hundred personnel drawn from 16 states (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Turkey, Ukraine, the UK and the US). The NATO Training Mission - Iraq (NTM-I) was established in December 2004 with its headquarters in Baghdad. NTM-I is helping to train defence and interior ministry personnel as well as officers assigned to the Iraqi Training and Doctrine Command (ITDC), which co-ordinates training for the IAF, and Iraqi Command and Control (C2) structures. It is also helping to establish a military academy, the Training, Education and Doctrine Centre (TEDC) where up to 1,000 IAF officers will be trained each year. NTM-I is additionally tasked with advising and implementing programmes for training IAF personnel to use newly-delivered equipment.

Aviation support
Coalition forces are supported by more than 350 aircraft and helicopters deployed in Iraq. The US Army has four combat aviation brigades equipped with AH-64 Apache, UH-60 Black Hawk, CH-47 Chinook and OH-58 Kiowa Warrior helicopters. A fifth brigade is due to be temporarily formed in December to support the 4th Infantry Division when it deploys in theatre, drawing on helicopters already based in Iraq. The US Marine Corps (USMC) has deployed the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing (Forward) at Al-Asad airbase in MNF-W to provide air support to II MEF. The 2nd MAW (Fwd) detachment includes F/A-18D Hornet and AV-8B Harrier II fighter-bombers, MV-22 Osprey tilt-rotor aircraft and CH-46 Sea Knight helicopters. Al-Asad is also home to a detachment of USAF A-10C Thunderbolt IIs assigned to the 438th Air Expeditionary Group (438th AEG). The USAF's 332nd Air Expeditionary Wing (332nd AEW) at Balad airbase in central Iraq has three expeditionary squadrons operating the F-16 Fighting Falcon, while C-130 Hercules and HH-60 Pave Hawk helicopters provide transport and CSAR support. The 332nd AEW additionally has a detachment of MQ-1B Predator UCAVs at Ali airbase in southern Iraq. The US Navy's USS Enterprise in the Arabian Gulf is equipped with a range of aircraft and helicopters, including up to 55 F/A-18C Hornet and F/A-18F Super Hornet fighter-bombers as well as four EA-6B Prowlers. Other USAF combat aircraft regularly deploy to the Middle Eastern region to support Iraqi Freedom.

The UK operates Merlin HC3, Sea King HC4 and Lynx AH7 helicopters at Basra International Airport as part of the Joint Helicopter Force (Iraq), while there are several Puma HC1s based at Baghdad International Airport. The RAF's 901 Expeditionary Air Wing (901 EAW) has deployed six Tornado GR4s and several Nimrod MR2s at Al-Udeid airbase in Qatar to support operations in Iraq. Denmark has deployed four AS550 Fennec helicopters at Basra. Australia has a detachment of two AP-3C Orions based in the Middle East tasked with maritime patrol operations supporting coalition naval forces in the region.

Naval assets
Coalition naval forces are conducting a range of maritime security operations in the region under overall command of the Combined Forces Maritime Component Commander (CFMCC) at Manama in Bahrain, presently the US Navy's Vice-Admiral Kevin J Cosgriff. Vice-Admiral Cosgriff is also the commander of US Naval Forces Central Command (USNAVCENT) and the US Navy's 5th Fleet.

CTF 158
Combined Task Force 158 (CTF 158) is tasked with protecting Iraq's important Khor Al-Amaya and
Al-Basra Oil Platforms (OPLATs) located in the Northern Arabian Gulf, as well as maritime security patrols to protect the Umm Qasr and Khor Az-Zubayr ports. It is composed of vessels from the US, UK and Australia with support from the newly-formed Iraqi Navy and Marines. CTF 158 is currently under the command of the Royal Australian Navy's Commodore Allan du Toit.

CTF 150
CTF 150 conducts maritime security operations (MSO) in the Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, the Arabian Sea, Red Sea and the Indian Ocean in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom, Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and the overall War on Terrorism. It is composed of up to 15 vessels from Canada, France, Germany, Pakistan, UK and the US. Command rotates among the countries contributing to CTF 150 and is currently under Pakistani command.

CTF 152
CTF 152 operates in central and southern Arabian Gulf in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom. From August 2007, CTF 152 was led by the Enterprise Carrier Strike Group (CSG), composed of the aircraft carrier the USS Enterprise, the guided-missile cruisers USS Gettysburg and USS James E Williams, the guided-missile destroyers USS Arleigh Burke and USS Stout, the SSN submarine USS Philadelphia and the fast combat support ship USNS Supply. The force often operates alongside vessels of the Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC).

Last revision: December 2007